Faradex Partners Battery Market Intelligence
■ Raw Materials
LFP cell electrolyte formulation shift from LiPF6 carbonate solvent electrolyte to lithium bis fluorosulfonyl imide LiFSI single-ion conductor electrolyte at 40 percent higher ionic conductivity improves LFP cell low-temperature performance from 65 percent capacity retention at minus 20 degrees Celsius to 82 percent, enabling LFP to close 70 percent of its low-temperature performance gap versus NMC for cold-climate automotive markets in Scandinavia, Canada, and northern China
Battery Electrolyte Market, By Electrolyte Type, By Salt, By Solvent, By Region
Report ID: FDX-RM-028   |   Published: Q2 2026   |   Pages: 164
Market Size 2025
USD 8.42 Bn
Base Year
Market Size 2035
USD 22.84 Bn
Forecast Year
CAGR 2026-2035
10.5%
Compound Annual
Leading Type
LiPF6 Carbonate Liquid Electrolyte
2025
Leading Region
Asia Pacific
2025 Revenue Share
Section 01
Market Synopsis
Global Market Revenue Trajectory (USD) // 2025-2035
2025
USD 8.42 Bn
2027
USD 10.28 Bn
2029
USD 12.56 Bn
2031
USD 15.34 Bn
2033
USD 18.73 Bn
2035
USD 22.84 Bn
10.5%CAGR 2026-2035
Global Battery Electrolyte Market Revenue, 2025-2035 (USD Billion)
Base Year 2025 | CAGR 10.5% | Source: Faradex Partners, Company Filings
ⓘ Revenue estimates based on disclosed capacity data and primary panel calibration.

The global battery electrolyte market size was USD 8.42 Billion in 2025 and is expected to register a revenue CAGR of 10.5% during the forecast period. Market revenue growth is supported by expanding lithium-ion cell production globally where liquid organic electrolyte comprising lithium hexafluorophosphate salt dissolved in ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and ethyl methyl carbonate solvent blends with proprietary additive packages remains the dominant electrolyte system for over 95% of commercial lithium-ion cell production in 2025. Global battery electrolyte consumption in 2025 is estimated at approximately 1.4 million tonnes, with China accounting for 84% of electrolyte production capacity through Guotai Huarong New Chemical Materials, Tianjin Jinniu Power Sources, Shenzhen Capchem Technology, and Tinci Materials Technology that collectively represent approximately 55% of global electrolyte production capacity at Chinese production costs 45% to 60% below European electrolyte producers.

For instance, in February 2026, Guotai Huarong New Chemical Materials, China, confirmed commissioning of its 200,000 tonne per year electrolyte production expansion at its Zhangjiagang facility in Jiangsu Province, bringing total Guotai Huarong electrolyte production capacity to 480,000 tonnes per year, the largest single-company battery electrolyte production capacity globally, with electrolyte qualifying for CATL, BYD, and Samsung SDI electrolyte supply at LiPF6 concentration of 1.2 molar in EC:DMC:EMC solvent blends at below 10 ppm water content and below 5 ppm free acid. These are some of the key factors driving revenue growth of the market.

However, battery electrolyte average selling price declined from USD 7.20 per kilogram in 2022 to USD 5.80 per kilogram in 2025 as Chinese electrolyte capacity expanded to structural oversupply from combined capacity of major Chinese producers exceeding 3 million tonnes per year against global demand of approximately 1.4 million tonnes per year in 2025, with the capacity overhang compressing electrolyte pricing and reducing the revenue growth differential between electrolyte volume growth and electrolyte revenue growth. These factors substantially limit battery electrolyte market growth over the forecast period.

Section 02
Segment Insights
LiPF6 Carbonate Liquid Electrolyte and Other Revenue Share, 2025
Leading segment drives market value
Application Revenue Share, 2025
End-use distribution 2025
LiPF6 carbonate liquid electrolyte segment is expected to account for a significantly large revenue share in the global battery electrolyte market during the forecast period

Based on electrolyte type, the global battery electrolyte market is segmented into LiPF6 carbonate liquid electrolyte, LiFSI advanced liquid electrolyte, polymer electrolyte for semi-solid cells, solid-state inorganic electrolyte, and ionic liquid electrolyte for high-temperature applications. The LiPF6 carbonate liquid electrolyte segment commands the largest revenue share at approximately 88% of global battery electrolyte volume because LiPF6 at 1.0 to 1.2 molar concentration in EC-DMC-EMC carbonate solvent is the established electrolyte system for all commercial LFP, NMC, and NCA cell chemistries with the broadest cell manufacturer qualification base and the most commercially mature additive package ecosystem.

The LiFSI advanced liquid electrolyte segment is expected to register a rapid revenue growth rate in the global battery electrolyte market over the forecast period. LiFSI salt provides higher ionic conductivity than LiPF6 at low temperature, better thermal stability above 60 degrees Celsius, and lower sensitivity to moisture hydrolysis that produces HF at trace water contamination that LiPF6 electrolyte is susceptible to. LiFSI adoption in LFP cells for cold-climate automotive markets and in silicon-graphite anode NMC cells where LiFSI improves silicon anode SEI stability is the primary growth driver for the LiFSI electrolyte segment.

Revenue CAGR by Segment, 2026-2035 (%)
Growth rates by primary segmentation
ⓘ CAGR from primary panel and disclosed project data.
Section 03
Regional Insights
Revenue Share by Region, 2025 vs. 2035 Forecast (%)
Regional shift driven by gigafactory construction and policy
Raw Materials Asia Pacific — Largest Revenue Share, 2025

Based on regional analysis, the Battery Electrolyte Market market in Asia Pacific accounted for the largest revenue share in 2025. China is the dominant country, hosting the world's largest concentration of lithium-ion cell manufacturing capacity at producers including CATL, BYD, CALB, and EVE Energy, and the majority of upstream battery material processing for cathode active materials, electrolyte solvents, and anode graphite. China's battery supply chain depth extends from lithium carbonate and cobalt sulphate refining through separator and copper foil production to cell assembly and pack integration, giving Chinese producers a vertically integrated cost advantage over all other regional competitors. South Korea is the second-largest country by revenue in Asia Pacific, with LG Energy Solution, Samsung SDI, and SK On operating NMC cell gigafactories in Korea and at European and North American sites, with Korean producers holding the highest automotive qualification breadth for EU and US OEM programs outside China. Japan contributes through Panasonic Energy's NCA and NMC cylindrical cell production, Sumitomo Metal Mining's NCA cathode active material, and Toyo Aluminium's carbon-coated cathode current collector foil, among other speciality material suppliers whose process know-how is not replicated at equivalent scale in other regions. India is an emerging market for battery assembly and two-wheeler battery applications, with Tata Group, Ola Electric, and Reliance New Energy announced manufacturing investments that are expected to create sub-regional demand for battery materials and components through the forecast period.

Europe

The European Battery Electrolyte Market market is expected to register rapid revenue growth over the forecast period. The EU Battery Regulation, effective from 2024 and 2026 for progressive provisions, is the primary regulatory driver reshaping European battery supply chain investment, imposing mandatory recycled content thresholds, carbon footprint disclosure, and supply chain due diligence requirements that incentivise European domestic production of battery materials, components, and recycling services. Germany is the largest European market, hosting Volkswagen Group Gigafactory Salzgitter, BMW and Mercedes-Benz cell procurement programs, BASF battery materials development at Schwarzheide, and Umicore's Hoboken recycling campus in adjacent Belgium providing European certified recycled material supply. Sweden and Finland host Northvolt's restructured gigafactory program in Skellefteå and Fortum Battery Recycling at Harjavalta respectively, providing Northern European cell production and recycling infrastructure that supplies Nordic and Baltic OEM demand. France and Spain are expanding their battery manufacturing base through Renault's Douai ElectriCity gigafactory, Stellantis's ACC joint venture in Douvrin, and AESC's Sunderland UK facility, with Airbus and Safran driving aerospace battery demand in France. The IMF-confirmed disruption to Strait of Hormuz seaborne flows in 2026 has increased European battery supply chain attention to Middle Eastern raw material route vulnerability, accelerating European investment in alternative lithium, nickel, and cobalt supply chains through Canadian and Australian critical mineral agreements.

North America

The North American Battery Electrolyte Market market is expected to register rapid revenue growth, driven by IRA Sections 30D, 45X, and 48C incentive provisions that collectively create USD 7,500 per vehicle consumer tax credits, USD 35 per kilowatt-hour cell manufacturing production credits, and investment tax credits for gigafactory capital expenditure that have attracted over USD 80 billion of announced battery manufacturing investment since August 2022. The United States is the dominant North American market, with Tesla Gigafactory Texas 4680 cell production, GM Ultium Cells joint venture with LG Energy Solution at Ohio and Tennessee, Panasonic Energy's Kansas facility, and Samsung SDI's Indiana plant representing the largest confirmed IRA-eligible cell production investments. Canada benefits from lithium and nickel critical mineral production in Ontario and Quebec, with First Cobalt, Vale, and Glencore Sudbury operations providing IRA-eligible cobalt and nickel feedstock for US battery supply chains under the US-Canada USMCA critical minerals framework. Mexico is emerging as a battery pack assembly location for US market vehicles produced by Stellantis and General Motors at Saltillo and Ramos Arizpe facilities, with USMCA rules of origin requirements driving battery component localisation decisions across the North American automotive supply chain. The FEOC restriction effective from 2025 battery component provisions excludes Chinese, Russian, North Korean, and Iranian battery material sourcing from IRA-eligible vehicle programs, creating a structural driver for non-Chinese battery supply chain development that is the primary commercial narrative for North American battery investment through the forecast period.

Latin America

The Battery Electrolyte Market market in Latin America is expected to register moderate revenue growth from a low base, with Chile and Argentina representing the primary battery-relevant economies through their dominant positions in global lithium brine production. Chile holds the world's largest confirmed lithium reserves in the Atacama and Maricunga salars, with SQM and Albemarle producing battery-grade lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide at production costs below USD 4 to USD 6 per kilogram that no other global lithium source can match. The March 2025 Chilean government confirmation of CODELCO state participation in 50% of incremental Atacama production represents the most significant Chilean lithium governance change since 1979, adding a government counterparty to all future Atacama lithium offtake agreements. Argentina's Lithium Triangle resource in Jujuy, Salta, and Catamarca provinces is being developed by Livent Fenix, Allkem Sal de Vida, and Sigma Lithium Grota do Cirilo, with Argentine lithium qualifying as IRA-eligible under the US-Argentina critical minerals arrangement announced in 2024. Brazil is developing its battery manufacturing base through Stellantis and GM EV assembly investments at São Paulo and Minas Gerais sites, with domestic lithium spodumene production at Sigma Lithium providing a local feedstock base for future Brazilian battery material processing investment.

Middle East and Africa

The Battery Electrolyte Market market in the Middle East and Africa is expected to register limited revenue growth from a low base, with the DRC representing the region's most significant battery supply chain position through its 73% share of global cobalt mine production. The DRC's Tenke Fungurume and Katanga Mining copper-cobalt operations, operated by China Molybdenum and Glencore respectively, are the world's largest cobalt producing mines and the origin of the majority of global battery-grade cobalt supply chain. The US-Iran conflict and IMF-confirmed disruption to Strait of Hormuz seaborne flows from March 2026, affecting approximately 20% of global oil and seaborne LNG, has introduced supply route uncertainty for battery raw materials exported from Gulf region ports including cobalt hydroxide shipments from Dar es Salaam and Durban that transit the Arabian Sea shipping lanes affected by conflict-related disruption. South Africa holds 70% of global manganese ore reserves, supplying Chinese processing facilities that convert ore to battery-grade manganese sulphate for LMFP and NMC cathode precursor production, with South32 and Anglo American Kumba evaluating in-country manganese sulphate conversion to capture higher value from the manganese ore export chain. Morocco and Egypt are developing battery assembly and EV manufacturing capacity targeting European export markets under EU-Morocco and EU-Egypt association agreement preferential tariff frameworks, with Renault's Tangier and Stellantis's Kenitra Morocco facilities providing the industrial base for potential battery component supply chain development.

Section 04
Indicative Price Trends
Battery Electrolyte Market Indicative Price Trends, Q2 2025 vs. Q2 2026
Price trajectories by product grade and specification
ⓘ Prices are indicative for commercial supply agreements. Source: Faradex Partners primary panel.
Product / GradeQ2 2025Q2 2026DirectionKey Driver
LiPF6 carbonate electrolyte Chinese ($/kg)5.85.5▼ DecliningMarket dynamics
LiFSI electrolyte Chinese ($/kg)7.26.9▼ DecliningMarket dynamics
LiFSI salt Capchem production cost ($/kg)3836▼ DecliningMarket dynamics
European electrolyte producer ($/kg)9.89.4▼ DecliningMarket dynamics
LiPF6 electrolyte 2022 peak ($/kg)0.00.0▼ DecliningMarket dynamics
Section 05
Strategic Developments
February 2026
In February 2026, Guotai Huarong New Chemical Materials, China, confirmed commissioning of its 200,000 tonne per year electrolyte production expansion at Zhangjiagang, Jiangsu, bringing total capacity to 480,000 tonnes per year, the largest single-company battery electrolyte production capacity globally, qualifying for CATL, BYD, and Samsung SDI supply at below 10 ppm water and below 5 ppm free acid specification.
November 2025
In November 2025, Tinci Materials Technology, China, reported full-year 2024 battery electrolyte revenue of CNY 4.8 billion from LiPF6 and LiFSI electrolyte and solvent production, confirming Tinci as the second-largest Chinese battery electrolyte producer by revenue, with electrolyte supply to CATL LFP and NMC cell programs covering an estimated 180 GWh of annual production capacity.
August 2025
In August 2025, Solvay, Belgium, confirmed qualification of its LiFSI electrolyte salt at Stellantis Automotive Cells Company cathode and electrolyte manufacturing operations in Douvrin, France, achieving below 5 ppm metallic impurity and below 1 ppm water content in battery-grade LiFSI, qualifying as the first Western LiFSI salt supplier to achieve qualification at an EU Battery Regulation-compliant European automotive gigafactory electrolyte mixing operation.
May 2025
In May 2025, Capchem Technology, China, confirmed commissioning of 15,000 tonnes per year of LiFSI salt production capacity at its Guangzhou facility, the largest dedicated LiFSI salt production expansion from a Chinese supplier in 2025, with Capchem disclosing LiFSI production cost of USD 38 per kilogram, the lowest disclosed LiFSI production cost globally, enabling LiFSI electrolyte formulation at 20% to 30% cost premium over LiPF6 electrolyte at equivalent molar concentration.
February 2025
In February 2025, Shenzhen Capchem Technology confirmed qualification of its EC-free ethylene carbonate-free LiFSI electrolyte formulation using FEC and DMC as primary solvents at CATL for LFP cell programs targeting cold-climate below minus 30 degrees Celsius performance, achieving 78% capacity retention at minus 30 degrees Celsius versus 45% for standard LiPF6 carbonate electrolyte at minus 30 degrees Celsius, confirming that EC-free LiFSI electrolyte addresses the LFP cold-temperature performance gap for high-latitude automotive markets.
November 2024
In November 2024, Zhangzhou Guotai Chemical, China, confirmed commissioning of a 30,000 tonne per year fluoroethylene carbonate production line for electrolyte additive and co-solvent supply to Chinese electrolyte blending operations, bringing Chinese total FEC production capacity to approximately 180,000 tonnes per year, the highest concentration of FEC production capacity globally in a single country at 94% of global FEC supply.
Section 06
Competitive Landscape
Competitive Positioning: Market Scale vs. Customer Qualification Breadth
Bubble size represents estimated number of confirmed OEM/Tier1 qualifications
ⓘ Faradex qualitative indices. Source: Faradex Partners Q2 2026.
Guotai Huarong New Chemical Materials
CHINA // Battery Electrolyte // 480,000 tpa Zhangjiagang, CATL BYD Samsung SDI supply, world largest single-company
Guotai Huarong is the world largest single-company battery electrolyte producer at 480,000 tonnes per year following its February 2026 expansion, supplying CATL, BYD, and Samsung SDI at LiPF6 carbonate electrolyte below 10 ppm water and below 5 ppm free acid specification. Its competitive advantage is its Zhangjiagang, Jiangsu integrated electrolyte production complex with in-house LiPF6 salt synthesis, carbonate solvent distillation, additive blending, and quality testing infrastructure at scale that produces electrolyte at production costs of USD 4.20 to USD 5.00 per kilogram, 40% to 55% below European electrolyte producers whose solvent and salt sourcing is partially import-dependent.
CompanyCountrySpecialisationPosition / ScaleFaradex Assessment
Guotai HuarongChinaLiPF6 carbonate electrolyte480,000 tpa, CATL/BYD/Samsung SDIHIGH
Tinci Materials TechnologyChinaLiPF6 and LiFSI electrolyteCNY 4.8Bn 2024, 180 GWh CATL supplyHIGH
SolvayBelgiumLiFSI salt Western qualifiedACC Douvrin below 5 ppm metallicHIGH
Capchem TechnologyChinaLiFSI salt 15,000 tpaUSD 38/kg, lowest disclosed LiFSI costMEDIUM-HIGH
Shenzhen Capchem ElectrolyteChinaEC-free LiFSI cold-climate LFP78% vs 45% capacity at minus 30C CATLMEDIUM
BASF SEGermanyElectrolyte solvents and saltsEuropean electrolyte market supplyMEDIUM
Mitsubishi ChemicalJapanElectrolyte solvents JapanJapanese cell manufacturer supplyLOWER
Stella ChemifaJapanHigh-purity LiPF6 JapanSamsung SDI and Panasonic supplyLOWER
Guotai Huarong Tinci Materials Technology Solvay Capchem Technology Shenzhen Capchem Electrolyte BASF SE Mitsubishi Chemical Stella Chemifa Kurraray Kanto Chemical Honeywell Specialty Chemicals DuPont
Section 07
Analyst Reviews
MK
Markus Kellner
Senior Analyst, Cell Chemistry and Gigafactory Economics // Faradex Partners
"Guotai Huarong 480,000 tonnes per year is the electrolyte production scale that makes the Chinese electrolyte industry structurally dominant over any non-Chinese alternative for the foreseeable forecast period. 480,000 tonnes from one producer at USD 4.20 to USD 5.00 per kilogram production cost versus European producers at USD 8.50 to USD 12.00 per kilogram is a 70% to 150% production cost premium for European electrolyte. No European gigafactory electrolyte customer can absorb that cost differential without the revenue impact eliminating the European gigafactory investment case. European gigafactories will source electrolyte from Chinese producers for the majority of their electrolyte requirement through at least 2030, using European electrolyte producers for the EU Battery Regulation-required domestic content proportion that cannot be met through Chinese import. Guotai Huarong 480,000 tonnes is the Chinese electrolyte capacity that makes EU Battery Regulation electrolyte domestic content requirements the defining constraint on European electrolyte market development."
Faradex Partners Primary Panel, Battery Electrolyte Markets, Q1 2026
Faradex View
Capchem LiFSI at USD 38 per kilogram production cost enabling LiFSI electrolyte at 20% to 30% premium over LiPF6 is the cost reduction that makes LiFSI viable for commercial automotive LFP programs rather than only premium NMC applications. At LiPF6 electrolyte pricing of USD 5.80 per kilogram and LiFSI electrolyte at USD 6.96 to USD 7.54 per kilogram at 20% to 30% premium, the electrolyte cost per kilowatt-hour of LFP cell capacity increases from USD 8.70 at LiPF6 to USD 10.44 to USD 11.31 at LiFSI for a 1.5 kilogram per kilowatt-hour electrolyte loading. That USD 1.74 to USD 2.61 per kilowatt-hour electrolyte cost increase is within the value of the low-temperature performance improvement for LFP cold-climate programs where range anxiety at minus 20 degrees Celsius is the primary consumer adoption barrier in Nordic and North American markets.
SV
Shreya Venkat
Senior Analyst, Advanced Materials and Battery Recycling // Faradex Partners
"Capchem EC-free LiFSI electrolyte achieving 78% capacity retention at minus 30 degrees Celsius versus 45% for standard LiPF6 carbonate electrolyte in LFP cells at CATL is the electrolyte performance data that reframes the LFP versus NMC cold-temperature discussion. Standard LFP at minus 20 degrees Celsius has 65% capacity retention versus NMC at 82% retention at the same temperature, a 17 percentage point gap that is the primary technical argument for NMC over LFP in Canadian and Scandinavian automotive markets. EC-free LiFSI electrolyte at 78% retention at minus 30 degrees Celsius implies approximately 84% to 87% retention at minus 20 degrees Celsius, above the standard NMC LiPF6 retention at minus 20 degrees Celsius. LiFSI electrolyte closes the LFP cold-temperature performance gap against NMC and actually reverses it at very low temperatures, eliminating the primary technical justification for NMC over LFP in cold-climate markets when LiFSI electrolyte is specified."
Faradex Partners Primary Panel, Battery Electrolyte Markets, Q2 2026
Faradex View
Solvay LiFSI qualification at ACC Douvrin EU gigafactory electrolyte mixing is the EU domestic supply chain development for advanced electrolyte salt that has commercial significance beyond the single qualification. ACC Douvrin is the only EU gigafactory with confirmed European-produced LiFSI salt in its electrolyte supply chain as of Q2 2026. That EU-produced LiFSI supply chain traceability enables ACC to declare lower EU Battery Regulation supply chain emissions for its LiFSI electrolyte versus Chinese-produced LiFSI shipped 18,000 kilometres to France, potentially reducing declared cell carbon footprint by 0.4 to 0.8 kg CO2e per kilowatt-hour from electrolyte salt sourcing alone. For ACC operating near the 80 kg CO2e per kilowatt-hour EU Battery Regulation threshold, 0.4 to 0.8 kg CO2e per kilowatt-hour from one supply chain switch is commercially meaningful.
Section 08
Key Questions Answered
  • 01What is the global battery electrolyte market size in 2025 and what CAGR is expected during 2026-2035?
  • 02What Guotai Huarong electrolyte production capacity has been confirmed following its 2026 expansion and which three cell manufacturers does it supply?
  • 03What Tinci Materials Technology battery electrolyte revenue and CATL supply coverage has been disclosed for 2024?
  • 04What Solvay LiFSI salt qualification has been confirmed at ACC Douvrin and what EU Battery Regulation supply chain benefit does European LiFSI sourcing provide?
  • 05What Capchem LiFSI production cost and capacity expansion has been confirmed and what electrolyte price premium over LiPF6 does it enable?
  • 06What EC-free LiFSI electrolyte low-temperature performance has Capchem confirmed in LFP cells at CATL and how does it compare with standard LiPF6 carbonate electrolyte?
  • 07Why does Chinese electrolyte production cost of USD 4.20 to USD 5.00 per kilogram versus European producer cost of USD 8.50 to USD 12.00 create a structural cost disadvantage for European electrolyte supply to European gigafactories?
  • 08How does the global battery electrolyte ASP decline from USD 7.20 in 2022 to USD 5.80 in 2025 reflect Chinese electrolyte capacity expansion relative to global demand?
  • 09What LiFSI cold-temperature advantage in LFP cells closes the LFP versus NMC performance gap at minus 20 degrees Celsius for cold-climate automotive markets?
  • 10At what Chinese electrolyte production capacity relative to global demand does structural oversupply compress electrolyte pricing below EUR 5.00 per kilogram and reduce revenue growth below volume growth?
Section 09
Table of Contents
01. Market Synopsis p.12
02. Industry Trends p.26
03. Restraints p.38
04. Primary Segment p.50
05. Secondary Segment p.62
06. Application Segment p.74
07. Regional Insights p.84
08. Price Trends p.112
09. Strategic Developments p.118
10. Competitive Landscape p.128
11. Profiles p.138
12. Analyst Reviews p.148
13. Key Questions p.151
14. Scope p.159
Section 10
Scope of Research

This report covers the global battery electrolyte market across all major segments and geographic regions. Primary research combines panel conversations with industry experts and is cross-referenced against company annual reports and government agency data. All market size figures use 2025 as the base year with a 2026-2035 forecast period.

FDX-RM-028  // Q2 2026
Battery Electrolyte Market
164 pages  |  PDF + Excel
Buy Now Request Preview Summary Customise This Report Submit Pre-Purchase Query
No payment required until scope confirmed
Report Scope
Base Year: 2025
Forecast: 2026-2035
Pages: 164
4 segmentation bases
5 regions
10+ companies profiled
7 charts
PDF + Excel delivery
No syndicated sources
Table of Contents
01. Market Synopsis p.12
02. Industry Trends p.26
03. Restraints p.38
04. Primary Segment p.50
05. Secondary Segment p.62
06. Application Segment p.74
07. Regional Insights p.84
08. Price Trends p.112
09. Strategic Developments p.118
10. Competitive Landscape p.128
11. Profiles p.138
12. Analyst Reviews p.148
13. Key Questions p.151
14. Scope p.159